History of India

The great dynasties

By the sixth century BCE, Magadha had become a major power in the northern plains. The same broad era saw Buddhism and Jainism emerge as influential religious and philosophical traditions.

Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Empire in the late fourth century BCE. Under Ashoka, Mauryan authority extended across much of the subcontinent. After the Kalinga war, Ashoka supported Buddhist institutions and expressed principles of governance through inscriptions on rocks and pillars.

Centuries later, the Gupta period became associated with major developments in literature, science, mathematics, art and temple architecture. Southern India followed distinct historical paths under powers including the Pallavas, Chalukyas, Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas. Their legacies include temples, maritime connections and celebrated Chola bronzes. The Hoysala and Vijayanagara kingdoms later created further distinctive architectural traditions.

The Delhi Sultanate

Raids and campaigns from Central and West Asia affected northern India over several centuries. Following the Ghurid conquests, Qutb al-Din Aibak established a dynasty in Delhi in 1206. The Mamluk, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid and Lodi dynasties are collectively known as the Delhi Sultanate.

This period brought changing systems of administration, military organisation and architecture. Persian became important at court, while cultural exchange contributed to new artistic, linguistic and architectural forms. Sultanate power varied greatly by time and region, and many independent kingdoms continued across the subcontinent.

The Mughal era

Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 and founded the Mughal Empire. His son Humayun temporarily lost power to Sher Shah Suri, whose administration and road network influenced later rulers.

Akbar consolidated and expanded the empire while developing a sophisticated administration and a court shaped by debate, diplomacy and artistic patronage. Jahangir and Shah Jahan followed; the latter's reign produced monumental works including the Taj Mahal, Delhi's Red Fort and Jama Masjid.

The empire reached its greatest territorial extent under Aurangzeb, but prolonged conflict and regional resistance placed it under pressure. After his death in 1707, Mughal authority fragmented as powers including the Marathas and several regional states gained strength.

British rule

European maritime trade expanded after Vasco da Gama reached Calicut in 1498. Portuguese, Dutch, French and English companies competed for commercial influence. The Portuguese retained Goa until 1961, while the English East India Company became increasingly powerful during the eighteenth century.

After military victories and political alliances, Company control spread across large parts of the subcontinent. Colonial policies transformed land revenue, trade, education, transport and government, while their effects varied sharply across communities and regions.

The uprising of 1857 began among Company soldiers at Meerut and spread across much of northern and central India. Its causes were political, economic, military and religious. After its suppression, rule transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown in 1858.

Towards independence

The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries brought social reform movements, changing public debate and organised opposition to colonial rule. Founded in 1885, the Indian National Congress became one of the principal organisations in the independence movement.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi helped turn resistance into a mass movement using non-violent protest and civil disobedience. Major campaigns included the Non-Cooperation Movement, the Salt March and Civil Disobedience Movement, and the Quit India Movement. Many other organisations, communities and political traditions also contributed to the struggle.

British rule ended in 1947 amid the partition of British India into India and Pakistan, an event accompanied by mass displacement and violence. India became independent on 15 August 1947 and adopted its Constitution on 26 January 1950, establishing a sovereign democratic republic with a federal system.